The Achievement
On December 10, 1903, Marie Curie became the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize. She shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and physicist Henri Becquerel for their research on radioactivity.
Eight years later, she won a second Nobel Prize, this time in Chemistry, for discovering the elements polonium and radium. She remains the only person in history to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific disciplines.
The Nobel committee nearly excluded her from the 1903 award entirely. The original nomination recognized only Pierre Curie and Becquerel. Swedish mathematician Gosta Mittag-Leffler learned of this and alerted Pierre, who insisted that Marie's name be included. Without that intervention, the first woman to win a Nobel Prize might have been written out of her own discovery.
Life Before Paris
Marie Curie was born Maria Sklodowska on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, then part of the Russian Empire. Her father taught mathematics and physics. Her mother ran a boarding school before dying of tuberculosis when Maria was ten.
Russian authorities had banned Polish women from higher education. Maria enrolled in the "Flying University," a clandestine network of underground classes held in private homes. She worked as a governess for several years, sending money to her older sister Bronislawa, who was studying medicine in Paris. The agreement was that Bronislawa would later support Maria's education in return.
In 1891, at age 24, Maria moved to Paris and enrolled at the Sorbonne. She studied physics and mathematics, often surviving on bread and chocolate while living in unheated garrets. She earned her degree in physics in 1893 (finishing first in her class) and a second degree in mathematics in 1894.
The Discovery of Radioactivity
In 1895, Marie married Pierre Curie, a physicist she had met through mutual scientific contacts. For her doctoral research, she chose to investigate a phenomenon recently discovered by Henri Becquerel: uranium salts emitted rays that could expose photographic plates.
Marie hypothesized that the rays came from the atomic structure of uranium itself, not from any chemical reaction. This was a radical idea. She coined the term "radioactivity" to describe the phenomenon.
Working with pitchblende (uranium ore), she discovered that the ore was more radioactive than pure uranium, meaning it contained other radioactive elements. She and Pierre isolated two previously unknown elements: polonium (named after Marie's native Poland) and radium.
The work was physically grueling. The Curies processed tons of pitchblende by hand in a converted shed with no ventilation. Marie stirred boiling mixtures in large vats, carried heavy containers, and breathed radioactive dust daily. Neither she nor Pierre understood the health risks.
The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics
The 1903 Nobel Prize recognized the Curies and Becquerel "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." Marie was too ill to attend the ceremony in Stockholm. Pierre collected the prize and delivered the lecture the following year.
The prize brought fame and financial relief, but it also brought unwelcome scrutiny. The French press treated Marie as Pierre's assistant rather than his equal, despite the fact that radioactivity research was her doctoral thesis and she had identified the phenomenon in pitchblende independently.
Tragedy and the Second Nobel
On April 19, 1906, Pierre Curie was killed instantly when he stepped into the path of a horse-drawn cart on a rain-slicked Paris street. Marie was devastated. She took over Pierre's teaching position at the Sorbonne, becoming the university's first female professor.
In 1911, she received her second Nobel Prize, this time in Chemistry, "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium." She was the sole recipient.
The award came during a period of intense personal attacks. French newspapers had published her private letters, accusing her of an affair with physicist Paul Langevin (a married man). The Nobel committee privately suggested she not attend the ceremony. She attended anyway and delivered her lecture.
Service During World War I
When World War I began, Curie recognized that X-rays could help battlefield surgeons locate bullets and fractures. She developed mobile X-ray units, nicknamed "petites Curies," and drove them to the front lines herself. She also established 200 permanent radiological installations.
She trained her teenage daughter Irene and approximately 150 other women to operate X-ray equipment. By some estimates, over a million wounded soldiers were examined using Curie's radiological units during the war.
The French government never formally recognized her wartime contributions during her lifetime.
Death and Lasting Impact
Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934, at age 66, from aplastic anemia caused by decades of radiation exposure. She had carried test tubes of radioactive isotopes in her pockets and stored them in her desk drawer. Radiation safety protocols did not exist for most of her career because the dangers were not yet understood.
Her daughter Irene Joliot-Curie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 (with her husband Frederic Joliot) for synthesizing new radioactive elements. The Curie family holds more Nobel Prizes than any other family in history.
In 1995, Marie Curie's remains were transferred to the Pantheon in Paris. She was the first woman to be interred there on her own merit.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize?
Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, shared with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, for their research on radioactivity.
How many Nobel Prizes did Marie Curie win?
Two. She won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. She remains the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different sciences.
What did Marie Curie discover?
Marie Curie discovered the elements polonium and radium. She also coined the term "radioactivity" and developed techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes.
How did Marie Curie die?
She died on July 4, 1934, from aplastic anemia caused by prolonged radiation exposure during her decades of research. Radiation safety standards did not exist for most of her career.
How many women have won the Nobel Prize?
As of 2024, approximately 65 women have won Nobel Prizes out of more than 960 total laureates, less than 7% of all winners.